The origin of triads, from secret societies and brotherhoods to global criminal networks

One man’s terrorist is another’s freedom fighter, or so the saying goes. Similarly, the history of Hong Kong’s triads is not merely a chronicle of crime, but a multilayered saga deeply intertwined with Chinese politics, migration and the city’s unique position. The journey from righteous secret societies to global criminal enterprises reveals much about the turbulent ebbs and flows of Chinese history.

The conventional origin of triads lies in the resistance that followed the fall of the Ming dynasty (1368-1644), after the Manchu conquest of China that heralded the Qing dynasty (1644-1912). Out of this turmoil, societies dedicated to restoring Ming rule emerged. Tiandihui, also known as the Heaven and Earth Society and Hongmen, is widely acknowledged by historians as the most direct predecessor to the triads.

While popular legends say it was founded by surviving Ming loyalists in the Shaolin Temple, modern scholars suggest this was not the case.

According to The Origins of the Tiandihui: The Chinese Triads in Legend and History (1994) by Baoqi Qin and Dian H. Murray, the society emerged in the 18th century as a mutual aid association among the urban poor and itinerant workers in the Fujian and Guangdong provinces. The book argues that Tiandihui was formed around 1761-1762 as a fraternal organisation, mainly for self-protection. Political motives were secondary, or later, additions.

The “anti-Qing” narrative was a powerful unifying ideology, but their early activities were often local and defensive.

In Triad Societies in Hong Kong (1989), author W.

P. Morgan traces various elements of triad culture to even older events in Chinese history. The blood oaths of triads, for example, can be traced back to a moment in the 14th century Chinese historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms by Luo Guanzhong, in which the warlord Liu Bei and Chinese military generals Guan Yu and Zhang Fei swear a blood oath of brotherhood. Guan Yu is now deified as a god of war and protector of brotherhoods, and is worshipped by triads and law enforcement alike.

Morgan links the first appearance of secret societies to the rebellion against the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty (1271-1368). Over time, three rebellion groups came to prominence: the White Lotus Society, the fleet of the pirate chief Fang Guozhen and Zhu Yuanzhang, who would later establish the Ming dynasty. The term “triad” or sanhehui became common in the early 19th century in Guangdong.

The name likely references the harmony of heaven, earth and man – a core concept in Chinese cosmology. As Qing persecution intensified in the north, these societies found fertile ground in the south, with Hong Kong’s coastline and colonial status offering a strategic base. The 19th century was a period of transformation in China, driven by two major forces: the opium wars and mass Chinese emigration.

The first opium war (1839-1842) and the subsequent cession of Hong Kong Island to Britain created a new, loosely governed territory where secret societies could operate with relative impunity. They became intricately involved in the opium trade, a business that blurred the lines between Western merchants, corrupt officials and local syndicates.

In The Search for Modern China (1990), Jonathan D. Spence details how the opium trade fundamentally reshaped China’s economy and social fabric, creating vast illicit economies that secret societies were perfectly positioned to exploit. Simultaneously, turmoil, including the Taiping rebellion (1850-1864), spurred mass emigration in the mid-19th century. As Chinese labourers sailed away to build railways in North America and work in mines in Southeast Asia, triad societies sailed with them.

In places such as San Francisco in the United States, Sydney in Australia and Singapore, they became de facto governments in Chinatowns, offering protection and community – but also enforcing control through extortion and vice.

In the 19th century, Hong Kong’s triad societies evolved from secret, anti-Qing networks into complex criminal enterprises, their growth intertwined with the colony’s rapid urbanisation. Following the British establishment of the City of Victoria, encompassing today’s Sai Wan, Sheung Wan, Central and Wan Chai, these networks found fertile ground in the nascent port. After the New Territories were leased to Britain in 1898, Kowloon Walled City – once a Qing dynasty military outpost – became a notorious enclave.

Its unique status, claimed by both China and Britain, created a jurisdictional vacuum, leading to its infamous transformation into a densely populated, lawless maze where the triads thrived.

In general, triad societies capitalised on the social dislocation of a booming migrant population. New arrivals, often lacking community ties or official protection, sought security and belonging, which triads provided in exchange for loyalty. Their activities quickly expanded from traditional fraternal support to controlling vice, protection rackets and territorial disputes.

Most strategically, they embedded themselves into the fabric of emerging trades, notably the dockyards and police force, creating a pervasive system of corruption that blurred the lines between law enforcement and organised crime. This foundational period established the triads’ enduring model: exploiting societal gaps and institutional vulnerabilities to build parallel power structures that would challenge Hong Kong’s governance for centuries to come.